The urinary tract is a complex group of organs that includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra, plus nerves and muscles. Working together, these components clear waste from the body in the form of urine. For most people, urinating several times a day is part of their daily routine.

There are times, however, when the urinary tract doesn’t work as well as it should. Whether it’s from injury or infection, a person can have a range of symptoms, including pain, trouble with the urine flow, and blood in the urine.

When a person has symptoms like these, it can be hard to know what to do. Should a person wait and see what happens? Or could there be an emergency that needs immediate care?

It’s important to know what constitutes a urologic emergency and how to handle it. This article covers the following urologic emergencies and discusses the definition, symptoms, causes, and treatments for each one. It also explains how one might reduce the risk of such an emergency:

• Paraphimosis
• Priapism
• Penile fracture
• Fournier’s gangrene
• Urethral injuries
• Testicular torsion
• Testicular rupture
• Acute kidney injury
• Obstructed pyelonephritis
• Bladder injury
• Acute urinary retention
• Kidney stones

Blood in the urine: A common symptom

As you read about the conditions below, you’ll see that blood in the urine (hematuria) is a common symptom of urologic emergencies. Indeed, it can be upsetting to discover blood in your urine. This situation does not always signify an emergency, but it’s best to have it checked out by a doctor, along with any other symptoms you’re having.

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Paraphimosis

What is paraphimosis?

Men who are not circumcised still have the foreskin of their penis. Typically, they pull back the foreskin when they clean their penis, urinate, or have sex. The foreskin may also be retracted if a man has a catheter during a surgical procedure.

Paraphimosis happens when the foreskin gets stuck in this retracted position. The man is unable to pull the foreskin forward over the head of the penis.

What are the symptoms of paraphimosis?

In addition to being unable to pull the foreskin forward, men with paraphimosis may have pain, swelling, trouble urinating, and discoloration of the penis (blue or black).

What causes paraphimosis?

Paraphimosis may develop if the penis has been injured. Infection is another cause, especially if a man has poor hygiene. It can also happen if a man does not pull the foreskin forward again after bathing or urinating.

Why is paraphimosis an emergency?

Without treatment, paraphimosis can lead to poor blood flow to the tip of the penis, cutting off the blood and oxygen supply. If this happens, there can be tissue damage or tissue death (gangrene).

How is paraphimosis treated?

Men with paraphimosis should seek treatment immediately.

To start, the doctor will try to reduce swelling at the tip of the penis. This can be done by gently squeezing the area for up to 30 minutes. Sometimes, ice is applied. Once the swelling is reduced, it may be possible to move the foreskin forward.

If this approach isn’t successful, there are other options:

• Using medications to reduce swelling.
• Cutting a small slit into the foreskin to loosen it so that it can be pulled forward.
• Doing a circumcision (surgically removing the foreskin).

If there is an infection, the doctor may prescribe antibiotics.

How might paraphimosis be prevented?

Getting circumcised is the only way to completely prevent paraphimosis. But men can reduce their risk by making sure the foreskin is pulled forward again to cover the tip of the penis after urinating, sex, washing, and medical procedures.

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Priapism

What is priapism?

Priapism is an erection that lasts for 4 hours or longer.

Typically, when a man has an erection, his penis fills with blood, which makes it firm. Veins constrict to keep the blood in. After he ejaculates (or when sexual stimulation stops), the veins open again and the blood flows back into the body.

Priapism usually isn’t related to sexual activity.

There are two types of priapism:

• Ischemic priapism (also called low-flow priapism) occurs when blood cannot flow out of the penis. This is the most common type.
• Nonischemic priapism (also called high-flow priapism) occurs when more blood than usual flows into the penis.

What are the symptoms of priapism?

The main symptom of priapism is an erection lasting several hours. However, other symptoms can vary depending on the type of priapism.

• Ischemic priapism is usually painful. The shaft of the penis may be hard, but the tip may be soft.
• Nonischemic priapism tends to be less painful, but the shaft and tip may remain firm.

What causes priapism?

Priapism can have several causes. Some of the more common ones include:

• Blood diseases, such as sickle cell anemia or leukemia
• Side effects to medications, like some erectile dysfunction drugs and antidepressants
• Trauma to the genital area or spinal cord, such as from an accident
• Use of alcohol or recreational drugs, such as marijuana or cocaine

Why is priapism an emergency?

When blood is trapped in the penis, it does not receive enough oxygen. If this situation lasts a long time, tissues in the penis can be severely damaged. Erectile dysfunction can also result.

The longer the delay of treatment, the greater the risk of damage.

How is priapism treated?

Doctors make treatment decisions based on the type of priapism a person has.

If a man has ischemic priapism, blood will need to be drained from the penis as soon as possible. Doctors may use one of the following techniques:

• Aspiration. Blood is drained with a surgical needle and syringe.
• Injection of medication or saline. This helps blood flow out of the penis.
• Surgery. Surgical procedures might be done to drain the blood. A shunt may be placed to reroute the blood flow.

Men with nonischemic priapism may not need treatment, as the erection may go away on its own. Ice packs and pressure on the perineum (the area between the anus and the scrotum) might help. If blood vessels have been damaged, they may be repaired with surgery.

Only a doctor can determine the type of priapism, so it’s critical to seek emergency care.

How might priapism be prevented?

Men with blood disorders may reduce their risk for priapism by following the treatment plan prescribed by their doctor. Men should also be careful about the prescription medications they take and limit their use of alcohol and recreational drugs. If priapism is a side effect of medication, the drug may be changed, but this should be done under a doctor’s care.

Decreasing risk of injury, such as wearing seatbelts in the car, may also reduce risk of priapism.

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Penile Fracture

What is penile fracture?

Penile fracture refers to a tear in the tunica albuginea, the layer of tissue that coats and protects the corpora cavernosa—two cylinders in the penis that fill with blood during an erection. (Note: There are no actual bones in the penis.)

A fracture happens when there is trauma to the erect penis. For example, if the penis is hit or severely bent, it may fracture.

What are the symptoms of penile fracture?

• A popping or cracking sounds when the fracture occurs
• Sudden, intense pain
• Swelling
• Bruising
• Blood at the tip of the penis or in the urine
• Loss of erection

What causes penile fracture?

Penile fracture can happen:

• During intercourse.
• If a man masturbates vigorously.
• If a man falls on or rolls over on his erect penis.
• During taqaandan, a cultural practice in which men bend the tip of their penis to stop an erection.

Why is penile fracture an emergency?

Without treatment, a penile fracture can lead to a curved penis or erectile dysfunction (ED). Men may also start having trouble urinating, and scar tissue could form.

How is penile fracture treated?

Men with penile fracture usually have surgery to repair the tunica albuginea.

How might penile fracture be prevented?

Men can reduce their risk for penile fracture by being especially cautious during sex and by not practicing taqaandan.

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Fournier’s Gangrene

What is Fournier’s gangrene?

Fournier’s gangrene is a rare, but life-threatening, bacterial infection that can affect the genitals and perineum. (In men, the perineum is the area between the anus and the scrotum. In women, it’s the area between the anus and the vulva.) In more severe cases, it may affect the thighs, stomach, and chest.

If not caught early, Fournier’s gangrene can cause serious tissue damage, organ failure, and death. Patients with this illness may need to spend several weeks in the hospital.

Fournier’s gangrene is 10 times more common in men than in women.

What are the symptoms of Fournier’s gangrene?

A person with Fournier’s gangrene may have the following symptoms:

• Pain
• Tenderness and swelling in the genitals or perineum
• Discolored skin (such as red, purple, brown, or black)
• Itching
• Fever and chills
• Nausea and vomiting
• Foul odor
• Mental changes
• Dehydration
• Lethargy

What causes Fournier’s gangrene?

Fournier’s gangrene can be caused by several types of bacteria, including E. coli, staphylococcus (“staph”) and streptococcus (“strep”). Sometimes it’s caused by a combination of bacteria.

There are many ways bacteria can enter the body. Examples include genital piercings, scratches or burns on the body, urinary tract infections, insect bites, and sex.

Why is Fournier’s gangrene an emergency?

Fournier’s gangrene is a type of flesh-eating disease. It can quickly destroy blood vessels, muscles, and nerves.

Without prompt treatment, a person can go into septic shock, a life-threatening condition that causes organs to shut down.

How is Fournier’s gangrene treated?

Surgery to remove damaged tissue is often necessary. (Reconstruction surgery to rebuild these areas might occur at a later date.) Antibiotics and other medicines may also be prescribed.

Some patients undergo hyperbaric oxygen therapy, where they inhale pure oxygen. This type of therapy is often associated with scuba divers who get decompression sickness, but it is also used to fight bacteria and heal wounds.

How might Fournier’s gangrene be prevented?

Good hygiene and proper wound care can reduce a person’s risk for Fournier’s gangrene and infections in general. People should also make sure they seek urgent medical care if they notice any redness, tenderness, or swelling in their genitals. For best outcomes, Fournier’s gangrene must be treated as quickly as possible.

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Urethral Injuries

What are urethral injuries? What causes them?

The urethra is the tube that allows urine to exit the body. It can be torn or crushed during trauma.

There are several situations that can cause urethral injuries:

• Trauma, such as from a car accident or serious fall
• Straddle injuries, when a person is hit hard between the legs
• Vaginal childbirth
• Problems with catheters or other urological devices
• Sexual assault and violence involving weapons
• Vigorous sexual intercourse

What are the symptoms of urethral injuries?

Common symptoms of urethral injuries include:

• Pain in the genitals or abdomen
• Swelling
• Trouble with urination
• Blood in the urine (hematuria)
• Blood at the tip of the penis
• Bruising on the perineum

Why are urethral injuries an emergency?

Without prompt treatment, urethral injuries can make a person more prone to infections that can affect the urinary tract and kidneys. Urethral injuries may also make it difficult for urine to leave the body, increasing the risk of infections and kidney damage.

Urethral stricture—a narrowing of the urethra—is another potential complication. When this happens, it becomes difficult to empty the bladder.

How are urethral injuries treated?

Urethral injuries are often treated with surgery to repair the tear and other damage. In some cases, a catheter may be placed in the urethra or bladder so that urine can drain while the urethra heals. Patients may receive antibiotics if they have an infection.

How might urethral injuries be prevented?

A person can reduce their risk for urethral injuries by taking the following precautions:

• Drive safely and wear seat belts.
• Operate other motor vehicles and machinery safely.
• Use protective gear, such as athletic supporters, while playing sports.
• Make sure the home is safe and use assistive devices to prevent falls.
• Be gentle during sexual activities. Use lubricant.

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Testicular Torsion

What is testicular torsion?

Testicular torsion affects the testicles (also called the testes) — two egg-shaped organs found in the scrotum (a sac located beneath the penis). Testicles produce hormones and sperm cells. Each testicle is attached to a spermatic cord, which provides the blood supply needed to keep the testicle healthy.

Sometimes, a testicle and its spermatic cord become twisted, blocking the blood supply to the attached testicle. This is called testicular torsion.

What are the symptoms of testicular torsion?

Men experiencing testicular torsion usually have sudden, intense pain in the testicle. The pain may spread to the abdomen. One testicle may be higher than the other.

There may also be:

• Swelling
• Discoloration of the scrotum
• A lump on the testicle
• Nausea and vomiting
• Fever
• A need to urinate more often

Testicular torsion is possible in both testicles, but it usually affects just one.

What causes testicular torsion?

Testicular torsion usually affects people with a “bell clapper” deformity in their scrotum. Typically, there is tissue that attaches the testicle to the wall of the scrotum, which keeps it from twisting. But some men are born without this attaching tissue, so the testicle swings as a bell clapper would.

Often, there is no specific event that triggers testicular torsion. It can happen while a man is active or sedentary.

Why is testicular torsion an emergency?

The testicle cannot live long without an adequate blood supply. If testicular torsion is not treated within 6 hours, there can be permanent damage to the testicle, and it may need to be surgically removed.

Some men have lower sperm counts after testicular torsion.

How is testicular torsion treated?

Testicular torsion is treated with surgery. The surgeon untwists the spermatic cord so that blood flow can resume. If the testicle can be saved, the surgeon uses stitches to attach it to the scrotum wall, so that it cannot twist again. The other testicle may also be stitched to the scrotum wall to prevent twisting on that side.

If the testicle cannot be saved, it is removed.

How might testicular torsion be prevented?

Men with bell clapper deformity may prevent future episodes of testicular torsion by having their testicle surgically attached to the scrotum wall.

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Testicular Rupture

What is testicular rupture?

A man’s two testicles are important for his reproductive health. They produce the hormone testosterone as well as sperm cells.

The testicles are found in the scrotum, a sac near the penis. Each testicle is protected by a membrane called the tunica albuginea. However, the testicles are not protected by muscles or bones, so they can be especially vulnerable to injury.

Testicular rupture occurs when there is forceful trauma to the testicle. Without prompt treatment the testicle can be severely damaged or lost.

What are the symptoms of testicular rupture?

Men feel intense pain when their testicle is ruptured. They may also have:

• Bruising and swelling in the area
• Blood in the urine
• Problems with urination
• A fever

What causes testicular rupture?

Testicular rupture is caused by blunt force or piercing injuries, such as the following:

• Vehicular accidents
• Falls
• Injuries while playing sports
• Violence involving knives or guns

Why is testicular rupture an emergency?

If a testicular rupture is not treated quickly, there is a greater risk of infection. Blood supply to the testicle can also be compromised. Without good blood supply, the testicle cannot survive.

How is testicular rupture treated?

Men with testicular rupture usually have surgery to repair it. If the rupture is severe, the testicle may need to be removed.

How might testicular rupture be prevented?

Men can reduce their risk for testicular rupture by taking these precautions:

• Drive safely and wear seat belts.
• Operate other motor vehicles and machinery safely.
• Use protective gear, such as athletic supporters, while playing sports.
• Being careful to avoid injury to the genital area.

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Acute Kidney Injury

What is acute kidney injury?

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a sudden instance of kidney failure. When AKI happens, the kidneys can no longer filter the blood effectively. As a result, waste products like creatinine and urea accumulate in the blood.

AKI usually begins over the course of a few hours or days. It often affects older people and patients who are already in the hospital for another illness. Chronic kidney disease, diabetes, and dehydration can increase a person’s risk for AKI.

When it is severe, it can be life-threatening.

An older term for AKI is acute renal failure.

What are the symptoms of acute kidney injury?

Many people don’t have symptoms until the later stages of AKI. However, symptoms typically include:

• Passing less urine than usual
• Swelling
• Fatigue
• Nausea
• Shortness of breath
• Chest pain
• Confusion
• Seizures or coma

What causes acute kidney injury?

There are many conditions and situations that can lead to AKI. Here are some examples:

• Conditions that decrease blood flow to the kidneys, such as low blood pressure, severe diarrhea, heart failure, and organ failure
• Conditions that cause kidney damage, such as sepsis, multiple myeloma, vasculitis, and interstitial nephritis
• Overuse of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen and naproxen

Why is acute kidney injury an emergency?

Without treatment, AKI can lead to permanent kidney damage and, in rare cases, death. It can also upset the balance of fluids and electrolytes in the body as waste products accumulate in the blood.

How is acute kidney injury treated?

Doctors treat AKI by treating the condition that causes it. For example, if medication is the cause, the doctor may prescribe alternatives. If there is an infection, then that will be treated.

In severe cases, patients with AKI are put on dialysis. Dialysis is a procedure that filters the blood when the kidneys are unable to do so.

How might acute kidney injury be prevented?

People can lower their risk for AKI by paying attention to their kidney health and managing conditions that are risk factors, like dehydration, diabetes, high blood pressure, and heart disease.

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Obstructed Pyelonephritis (Pyonephrosis)

What is obstructed pyelonephritis?

The word pyelonephritis refers to a kidney infection. A person with obstructed pyelonephritis has a kidney infection along with a blockage in the urinary tract.

What are the symptoms of obstructed pyelonephritis?

Symptoms of obstructed pyelonephritis tend to come on suddenly, over the course of a few hours or within a day. They may include:

• Pain in the lower back or flank
• Pain or burning sensation during urination
• Fever or chills
• Nausea or vomiting
• Bloody urine
• Needing to urinate more frequently or urgently
• Releasing less urine than usual
• Confusion or changes in mental state
• Shortness of breath

What causes obstructed pyelonephritis?

Most of the time, obstructed pyelonephritis is caused by a bacteria, although sometimes it’s caused by a virus. The bacteria typically enter the body through the urethra, then travel up the urinary tract.

In addition to the bacteria, there is a blockage in the urinary tract. This obstruction might be caused by kidney stones, an enlarged prostate, uterine prolapse, or another condition. Because the blockage makes it harder for urine to leave the body, bacteria can grow in the backed-up urine.

Why is obstructed pyelonephritis an emergency?

Without treatment, obstructed pyelonephritis can lead to kidney failure, kidney damage, abscesses, sepsis, or blood clots in the veins of the kidney.

How is obstructed pyelonephritis treated?

Obstructed pyelonephritis is treated with antibiotics and other medicines. Some patients need to be hospitalized. In some cases, surgical drainage may be needed.

How might obstructed pyelonephritis be prevented?

People might lower their risk for obstructed pyelonephritis by:

• Staying properly hydrated.
• Emptying the bladder whenever they urinate.
• Wiping from front to back after using the bathroom.
• Urinating before and after sexual activity.
• Keeping the genital area clean.

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Bladder Injury

What is a bladder injury? What causes it?

The bladder is the organ that stores urine after it is produced by the kidneys. It can be damaged through blunt force (such as in a motor vehicle accident or while playing sports). It may also be torn by penetrating injuries (such as knife or gunshot wounds).

What are the symptoms of a bladder injury?

A person with a bladder injury may have symptoms like these:

• Pain in the abdomen or back
• Blood in the urine
• Blood or urine coming from the vagina.
• Difficulty with urination or inability to urinate at all
• Painful or frequent urination
• Fever
• Bruising

Why is a bladder injury an emergency?

Without prompt treatment, a bladder injury can have complications such as:

• Sepsis
• Infections
• Kidney problems
• Permanent bladder damage
• Urinary incontinence
• Fistulas (connections between two organs that don’t typically connect, such as the bladder and the intestines)

How is a bladder injury treated?

Treatments for bladder injuries depend on the severity of the injury.

In mild cases, patients may have a temporary catheter to drain urine out of the body. This gives the bladder a chance to heal.

More serious cases may require surgery to repair the tear or other damage.

Medications to manage pain and treat any infections may also be prescribed.

How might a bladder injury be prevented?

People may lower their risk of bladder injuries by following safety precautions when operating motor vehicles and playing sports.

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Acute Urinary Retention

What is acute urinary retention? What are the symptoms?

Acute urinary retention occurs when a person is unable to urinate, even if they have a full bladder. (In some cases, people may urinate only a very small amount.) It comes on suddenly and can be quite painful. People may have abdominal swelling and still feel the need to empty their bladder.

This condition is different from chronic urinary retention, in which a person can still urinate, but their bladder doesn’t empty. Chronic urinary retention occurs gradually and is not an emergency.

Acute urinary retention is more frequent in older men, and the risk increases with age. Women and children are less likely to develop acute urinary retention.

What causes acute urinary retention?

In men, acute urinary retention is often caused by an enlarged prostate gland. The prostate is a walnut-sized gland in a man’s reproductive system. The urethra (the tube that allows urine to exit the body) runs right through the middle of the prostate.

As men get older, their prostate tends to get larger. However, the direction of this growth is inward rather than outward. As a result, excess prostate tissue can squeeze the urethra, making urination more difficult. And in some cases, the growth can block urine flow completely.

Other causes of acute urinary retention may include:

• Urethral stricture (narrowing of the urethra)
• Urinary stones
• Side effects of medications, such as some antihistamines and antidepressants
• Nerve issues
• Swelling from a prostate infection or urinary tract infection

Why is acute urinary retention an emergency?

Without treatment, acute urinary retention can lead to bladder and kidney damage. Bacteria that remain in the bladder can cause a urinary tract infection.

How is acute urinary retention treated?

In the emergency department, the doctor will insert a urinary catheter into the bladder to drain it.

After the initial emergency is addressed, the doctor may suggest treatments for the underlying cause of the retention. For example, an enlarged prostate may be treated with drugs or medical procedures. Urethral stricture may be treated with surgery. If medications are the cause, the doctor may adjust the dose or change the prescribed drug.

How might acute urinary retention be prevented?

People might lower their risk for acute urinary retention by:

• Not holding their urine
• Staying hydrated
• Getting enough fiber in their diet
• Exercising regularly
• Doing pelvic floor exercises
• Taking medicine as prescribed

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Kidney Stones

What are kidney stones? What causes them?

Kidney stones are small masses that form in your kidney. They form from a buildup of substances, like calcium and uric acid, that crystallize and form stones. Some stones pass on their own, but others get stuck in the urinary tract.

What are the symptoms of kidney stones?

Some of the common symptoms of kidney stones are:

• Pain
• Blood or “sand” in the urine (Sand refers to tiny stones that pass in the urine, which resemble sand or gravel.)
• Changes in urination
• Nausea
• Fever or chills

Why might kidney stones be an emergency?

Kidney stones are not always an emergency. In fact, some people with kidney stones have no symptoms at all. Others have mild symptoms that can be managed with medication at home until the stones pass.

However, for some people, the pain of kidney stones is intense. Also, the size of the stone and the potential for hydronephrosis (swelling of the kidney) can be concerns. In those cases, going to an urgent care clinic or emergency room is recommended.

How are kidney stones treated?

Severe kidney stones can be treated in several ways:

• Ureteroscopy. A thin, long tube is threaded through the urinary tract and into the kidney. This tool can remove stones or break them down to be passed through urine.
• Shock wave lithotripsy (SWL). Shock waves, administered through the skin, break down the stones so they can pass.
• Percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PNL). Stones are surgically removed through a small incision in your back or side.

Kidney stones are not always an emergency. However, for some people, the pain of kidney stones is intense.

How might kidney stones be prevented?

You can lower your risk for kidney stones by staying hydrated (drinking plenty of water). If you have had stones before, your doctor may recommend a special diet or taking prescribed medications.

Learn more about kidney stones.

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Resources

Paraphimosis

American Academy of Family Physicians

“Paraphimosis”
(Last Updated: January 2021)
https://familydoctor.org/condition/paraphimosis/

Cleveland Clinic

“Paraphimosis”
(Last review: March 19, 2025)
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22244-paraphimosis

Medical News Today

Ingleson, Kanna
“What to know about paraphimosis”
(August 8, 2017)
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/318833

MedlinePlus

“Paraphimosis”
(Reviewed: January 1, 2023)
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001281.htm

Up to Date

Diamond, David A, MD and Tews, Matthew, DO
“Paraphimosis: Clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and treatment”
(Topic last updated: August 28, 2024)
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/paraphimosis-clinical-manifestations-diagnosis-and-treatment

Priapism

American Urological Association

Bivalacqua T.J., Allen B.K., Brock G.B., et al.
“Diagnosis and Management of Priapism: AUA/SMSNA Guideline (2022)”
(2022)
https://www.auanet.org/guidelines-and-quality/guidelines/diagnosis-and-management-of-priapism-aua/smsna-guideline-(2022)

Mayo Clinic

“Priapism – Diagnosis and Treatment”
(August 31, 2021)
https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/priapism/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20352010

“Priapism – Symptoms & Causes”
(August 31, 2021)
https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/priapism/symptoms-causes/syc-20352005

Up to Date

Deveci, Serkan, MD
“Priapism”
(Topic last updated: February 10, 2025)
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/priapism

Urology Care Foundation

“What is Priapism?”
(Updated: August 2022)
https://www.urologyhealth.org/urology-a-z/p/priapism

Penile Fracture

American Urological Association

Morey A.F., Brandes S,. Dugi D.D. 3rd, et al.
“Urotrauma (2020)”
(Published: 2014. Amended: 2017 and 2020)
https://www.auanet.org/guidelines-and-quality/guidelines/urotrauma-guideline

Cleveland Clinic

“Penile Fracture”
(Last reviewed: June 7, 2024)
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21707-penile-fracture

Mayo Clinic

Ziegelmann, Matthew (Matt) J., M.D.
“Is it possible to ”break” your penis?”
(July 6, 2024)
https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/sexual-health/expert-answers/penis-fracture/faq-20058154

Up to Date

Voelzke, Bryan, MD, MS, FACS
“Traumatic injury to the male anterior urethra, scrotum, and penis”
(Topic last updated: November 15, 2024)
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/traumatic-injury-to-the-male-anterior-urethra-scrotum-and-penis

Fournier’s Gangrene

Cleveland Clinic

“Fournier’s Gangrene”
(Last reviewed: February 17, 2025)
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22025-fourniers-gangrene

“Septic Shock”
(Last reviewed: June 14, 2022)
Septic Shock: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

DermNetNZ.com

Singh, Amritpreet and Amanda Oakley
“Fournier gangrene”
(Copy edited: March 2022)
https://dermnetnz.org/topics/fournier-gangrene

Mayo Clinic

“Hyperbaric oxygen therapy”
(December 6, 2024)
https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/hyperbaric-oxygen-therapy/about/pac-20394380

Urethral Injuries

American Urological Association

Morey A.F., Brandes S,. Dugi D.D. 3rd, et al.
“Urotrauma (2020)”
(Published: 2014. Amended: 2017 and 2020)
https://www.auanet.org/guidelines-and-quality/guidelines/urotrauma-guideline

StatPearls via NIH National Library of Medicine

Leslie, Stephen W., et al.
“Urethral Injury”
(Last update: July 24, 2023)
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554575/

Urology Care Foundation

“Urethral Trauma”
(no date)
https://www.urologyhealth.org/urology-a-z/u/urethral-trauma

Testicular Torsion

Cleveland Clinic

“Testicular Torsion”
(Last reviewed: February 27, 2023)
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15382-testicular-torsion

MedlinePlus

“Testicular torsion”
(Review date: July 1, 2023)
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000517.htm

Up to Date

Eyre, Robert C., MD and Farooq, Ahmer, DO
“Acute scrotal pain in adults: Evaluation and management of major causes”
(Topic last updated: April 22, 2025)
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/acute-scrotal-pain-in-adults-evaluation-and-management-of-major-causes

Urology Care Foundation

“Testicular Torsion”
(Updated March 2024)
https://www.urologyhealth.org/urologic-conditions/testicular-torsion

Testicular Rupture

Cleveland Clinic

“Ruptured Testicle”
(Last reviewed: June 6, 2022)
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/23245-ruptured-testicle

Up to Date

Runyon, Michael S., MD, MPH
“Blunt genitourinary trauma: Initial evaluation and management”
(Topic last updated: March 8, 2023)
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/blunt-genitourinary-trauma-initial-evaluation-and-management

Urology Care Foundation

“Testicular Trauma”
(No date)
https://www.urologyhealth.org/urology-a-z/t/testicular-trauma

Acute Kidney Injury

National Kidney Foundation

“Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)”
(Last updated: February 26, 2024)
https://www.kidney.org/kidney-topics/acute-kidney-injury-aki

Yale Medicine

“Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)”
(No date)
https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/acute-kidney-injury

Obstructed Pyelonephritis

Cleveland Clinic

“Kidney Infection (Pyelonephritis)”
(Last reviewed: January 31, 2023)
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15456-kidney-infection-pyelonephritis

StatPearls via National Library of Medicine

Belyayeva, Mariya; Leslie, Stephen W.; and Jeong, Jordan M.
“Acute Pyelonephritis”
(Last update: February 28, 2024)
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30137822/

Bladder Injury

American Urological Association

Morey A.F., Brandes S,. Dugi D.D. 3rd, et al.
“Urotrauma (2020)”
(Published: 2014. Amended: 2017 and 2020)
https://www.auanet.org/guidelines-and-quality/guidelines/urotrauma-guideline

StatPearls via National Library of Medicine

Kang, Lorna and Geube, Aleksandar
“Bladder Trauma”
(Last update: May 22, 2023)
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557875/

Urology Care Foundation

“Bladder Trauma”
(No date)
https://www.urologyhealth.org/urology-a-z/b/bladder-trauma

Acute Urinary Retention

Cleveland Clinic

“Urinary Retention”
(Last reviewed: January 23, 2024)
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15427-urinary-retention

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases

“Definition & Facts of Urinary Retention”
(Last reviewed: December 2019)
https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/urologic-diseases/urinary-retention/definition-facts

“Preventing Urinary Retention”
(Last reviewed: December 2019)
https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/urologic-diseases/urinary-retention/prevention

“Symptoms & Causes of Urinary Retention”
(Last reviewed: December 2019)
https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/urologic-diseases/urinary-retention/symptoms-causes

“Treatment of Urinary Retention”
(Last reviewed: December 2019)
https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/urologic-diseases/urinary-retention/treatment

Up to Date

Barrisford, Glen W., MD, MS, MPH, FACS and Steele, Graeme S. MBBCh, FCS, FACS
“Acute urinary retention”
(Topic last updated: September 9, 2024)
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/acute-urinary-retention

Kidney Stones

American Urological Association

“Medical Management of Kidney Stones (2019)”

(Published 2014. Reviewed and validity confirmed 2019)

https://www.auanet.org/guidelines/kidney-stones-medical-mangement-guideline

“Surgical Management of Stones: AUA/Endourology Society Guideline (2016)”

(Published 2016)

https://www.auanet.org/guidelines/kidney-stones-surgical-management-guideline

Up to Date

“Patient education: Hydronephrosis in adults (The Basics)”
(no date)
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/hydronephrosis-in-adults-the-basics

Preminger, Glenn M., MD and Gary C. Curhan, MD, ScD
“Patient education: Kidney stones in adults (Beyond the Basics)”
(Last updated: May 16, 2023)
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/kidney-stones-in-adults-beyond-the-basics

Urology Care Foundation

“What are Kidney Stones?”
(no date)
https://www.urologyhealth.org/urology-a-z/k/kidney-stones